River Valley Civilizations
                                    
The first civilizations grew out of the new-found agriculture and domestication of animals!  They appeared in river valleys around 7000 years ago, and with their appearance comes a remarkable shift in what archaeologists and historians can prove about our past.  River valleys offered more than just a comfortable environment with picturesque settings, they held the two main ingredients necessary for agricultural success: a source of water and fertile soil.  Seasonal flooding of the rivers adjacent to early civilizations provided soil called silt (carried by the flooding waters and deposited on land) that was highly rich in nutrients and would support continuous growing of crops.

    The Nile River Valley and the Egyptian Civilization

While the pyramids and Sphinx of Egypt are very important aspects of Egyptian history, and ultimately what Egypt is best known for, there is certainly a lot more to be discovered by examining this great civilization.  Founded by hunters who settled in the Nile River Valley around 5000 BC, Egypt grew significantly in a short period of time. Farming communities had developed into groups called kingdoms.  Over time, due to the nature and strength of various leaders, these kingdoms gradually merge together.  By 4000 BC, there were just two kingdoms encompassing all of Egypt: The Upper Kingdom (located deep in the Nile Valley) and the Lower Kingdom (located near the mouth of where the Nile River flows into the Mediterranean Sea). Near 3000 BC, the leader of the Upper Kingdom, King Narmer, led an army of his men into a successful battle against the Lower Kingdom.  This victory united the two large kingdoms under one ruler at a newly constructed capital city called Memphis (no, not Elvis-Land in Tennessee), and from this point, the Egyptian civilization begins to thrive.

Three Kingdoms of Egypt

From the moment of Egyptian unification, historians classify three distinct periods of time, called kingdoms.  The first, known as the Old Kingdom, covers a 500 year period from 2700 - 2200 BC.  The beginnings of Egyptian government takes form during the Old Kingdom - the ruler of the Egyptians was regarded as the political leader and also worshipped as a God.  This type of system is called a THEOCRACY.  Because the civilization was so large, the Egyptian rulers were smart enough to know they needed more people in charge to help rule the people.  They designated certain responsibilities to royal officials.  Assigning tasks and responsibilities to officials beneath a central ruler is called a bureaucracy - and in Egypt we see the very first limited form of government of this type. During this period, we also see the construction of the first pyramids take place.  Built to honor Egyptian Kings, the first pyramids were not the masterful pyramids located in Giza, but were instead small and built to look like steps leading into the sky (hence their name - Step Pyramids).  With much practice, the main architect of the pyramids, Imhotep, refined the process.  Each new pyramid that was constructed became less stepped and more sloped. We also see Egyptians burying their mummified dead with clothing, furniture, weapons and jewelry.  This is a firm indication that the Egyptians believed in an after-life.
 

The Middle Kingdom covered 2100 -1650 BC and during this time Egyptian territory expanded southward.  A new capital city, Thebes, was constructed.  Egyptians undertook massive irrigation projects in the Middle Kingdom, and even attempted building a canal that linked the Nile River to the Red Sea!  We also see the first example of a reoccurring theme in history during this time - conquest.  An Asian civilization, known as the Hyksos invaded Egypt with advanced weapons and were able to conquer (temporarily) the Egyptians.

The New Kingdom covered 1600 - 1000 BC and during this time, the Egyptians were able to overcome the Hyksos and drive them out of Egypt.  Kings began calling themselves Pharaohs during the New Kingdom, and the Egyptian territory expands further south and east.  We also see elaborate architecture, religious controversy and science and technological innovation during this period!

                                         Geographic Importance

As mentioned earlier, the Egyptian civilization grew from farming communities.  When you imagine Egypt today, you might think of vast deserts with hot and dry temperatures.  7000 years ago, the climate of Egypt was much different.  Each spring and summer, the Nile River would flood depositing a rich layer of silt along the lands near the river.  This silt was essential to the development of an agricultural society.  It also provided for another important plant to grow - PAPYRUS.  This weed-like plant grew in the marshy areas along the Nile, and over time the Egyptians learned how to harvest papyrus and tear it into long strips.  These strips were dried and then used to make baskets, rope, sandals and eventually the Egyptians learned how to laminate the strips together to form a type of paper!

                                            Egyptian Religion

Religion was a major factor in the lives of Egyptians.  They worshipped many different gods or deities (other than their King/Pharaoh).  Worshipping many different deities is called POLYTHEISM.  Egyptian gods were usually part animal and part human.  Among the most important were RA - the God of the Sun, HORAS - the God of the Sky, OSIRIS - originally the God of the Nile and later the God of life, death and rebirth.  Together, OSIRIS and his wife ISIS controlled the fate of the dead!  Burial patterns mentioned earlier, including burying the dead with possessions and mummifying them, lend support to the enormous importance Egyptians placed on the belief in an after-life.  Mummification was a complex procedure and involved much more than just wrapping a body in cloth.  The organs of the dead were removed and placed in jars to be buried with the body.  The body was preserved by removing the insides and replacing them with clay and other materials, and endured a 70 day treatment that toughened the skin almost to a leather-like texture.  Then they were wrapped in fabric and placed inside of a container called a sarcophagus.  Depending on the importance of the person, the sarcophagus might have been decorated with gold and jewels.  This sarcophagus was buried (or in the case of Kings placed in a burial chamber of a pyramid) along with possessions, the jarred organs and any other objects that might be needed in the after-life.

                     

                                              Egyptian Writing

Another important feature of the Egyptian civilization was the development of their written language.  The Egyptians used pictures and symbols to represent various letters and words to make up their language, called HIEROGLYPHICS.  Very few people in Egyptian society could read or write.  Those who could were called SCRIBES, and they often used a simplified and abbreviated version of hieroglyphics for every-day writing called HIERATIC.  We are able to read hieroglyphics today because of the discovery in 1799 A.D. of the ROSETTA STONE - a stone tablet containing both hieroglyphics and Greek letters.   

 
                                  
                               Egyptian Intellect and Innovation

The Egyptians were also a very innovative civilization.  They had a complex number system and were able to use geometry to calculate area and volume - important in the surveying of flood lands.  The Egyptians also looked at the sky at night, and created a 365-day calendar based on the phases of the moon.  They were even able to determine that the dog-star, SIRIUS, appeared in the sky each season shortly before the floods occurred - yet another example of Egyptian planning and preparation.

                                          Egyptian Social Class

One of the earliest class systems (or ranking of people based on wealth and power) emerged during the Egyptian civilization.  A VERY small percentage of the population had wealth and power.  They were the Upper Class and consisted of Kings and Priests who lived in large and beautiful estates along the Nile River.  Only slightly larger than the Upper Class was a group of scribes, merchants and tax collectors - the Middle Class.  These people lived in comfortable houses in cities.  The majority of the population was not wealthy.  They were the farmers and builders of the Lower Class - paying rent and taxes to the King.  The family structure of the Egyptian society was important as well.  They lived much like we do today - only you may see large family units living together (grandparents, uncles, cousins) if the family had some wealth.  Women were also important figures in Egyptian society.  Women held power, ruled over the Egyptian Civilization, and could buy, sell and own property! 

The Fertile Crescent and the Mesopotamian Civilizations

The Fertile Crescent was an area of fertile land running from the Eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf.  This area served as a home for many different civilizations, including the Hebrews, Phoenicians, Assyrians and Sumerians.  Two rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates flow through the Eastern part of the Fertile Crescent in a place called Mesopotamia (meaning "land between two rivers") The flooding of both the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers provided the same kind of nutrient rich soil as the Nile did in Egypt, allowing Mesopotamians to develop into an agricultural society.  Unfortunately for these Mesopotamians, the Tigris and Euphrates did not follow any sort of predictable flood patterns.  While the Egyptians could predict when the Nile would flood, the Mesopotamians often had no idea and very little warning to prepare for extreme flooding in their homeland.  To further complicate matters for the Mesopotamians, they also endured periods of drought (very little rain) which made large irrigation projects like dams, canals and channels necessary for survival!
                 
                     The World's First Cities are Born at Sumer

Around 3500 BC, the Sumerian civilization began to emerge in the south-eastern corner of the Fertile Crescent.  Populated primarily by people migrating south from Asia and Asia Minor, Sumer rapidly grew in size and population.  In just 500 years, by 3000 BC, Sumer had 12 CITY-STATES (self contained territories with their own political leaders and military) had risen.  Among the largest of the 12 Sumerian city-states were Ur, Uruk and Eridu; each was home to nearly 250,000 people!  Although each city-state had their own king (whose main function was to impose penalties, supervise farming, and serve as the political, religious and military leader) each shared the same culture, language and religion.

                                           Sumerian Religion

The Sumerians, like their Egyptian counterparts, were polytheistic.  Sumerians worshipped many different deities, each serving either a human activity (like plowing) or a force in nature (like wind or water).  Some of the most important Sumerian deities include: AN – God of Heavens, INANNA – Goddess of Love, 
ENLIL – God of Winds and Storms, UTU – God of Sun, ENKI – God of Water, and ERESHKIGAL - Goddess of Darkness, Gloom, and Death.  While Sumerians worshipped all deities, each city-state had an official deity, whom they worshipped above the others and offered sacrifices to.  Another difference between Sumerian religion and Egyptian religion is the concept of an after-life.  Sumerians felt as thought the deities they worshipped were far superior to themselves.  In fact, they even considered natural disasters and tragedies (like extreme flooding or drought) to be an act of a displeased god.  With this negative view of their own existence, it is not surprising to learn that Sumerians believed in an after-life that was harsh and cold.  There were no promises of a better life beyond this world, only an eternity spent in the shadows and depths of the dark underworld.

                                            Sumerian Writing

The Sumerians also had their own written language, called CUNEIFORM.  Sumerians made their cuneiform writing by pressing reeds down onto wet clay tablets which they baked in the sun.  Cuneiform language was based on pictograms (the world's oldest form of writing), and would serve to become the script for the earliest alphabets.  Like in Egypt, few people in Sumerian society could read and write.  Scribes in Sumer studied for many years at special schools called EDDUBAS.  There they learned and refined their skills.
                                          

      Sumerian Innovation and Technology - Relating Directly to Economy

The Sumerians were also technologically advanced.  They developed many different tools to aid them in daily life.  Among the Sumerian inventions were the wagon wheel, the arch, a number system, a 12-month calendar based on the lunar-cycle, the potter's wheel and also learned to make bronze from copper and tin.  All of these inventions relate directly to the Sumerian economy.  They were agricultural, growing millet, wheat and barley, and traded with Indian and Mediterranean civilizations in a barter system.

                             The Sumerians Battle for Survival 

Sumer endured periods of conquest and re-emergence until the Amorites were finally able to overrun a weakened civilization and establish a dynasty at Babylon.  There, under a powerful ruler called Hammurabi, the Babylonians developed a large and prosperous civilization.  Hammurabi helped to create a strong-central government with a highly organized tax system, and an economically striving civilization bolstered by trade with India and China.  Hammurabi is also remembered for his code of laws - basically a combination of existing Sumerian laws that he applied to all people with strict punishments.  The Babylon law code contained 282 sections that covered fines and fees as well as procedures for determining innocence and guilt (I hope many in Babylon learned how to swim!).  This law code is extremely important because it is the first example of a government assuming a role in the protection of its citizens. 

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